Explore the following historical overview of Japan.
You may also explore two other links:
Table of Events
Godkings
of Japan
As you explore this material, look at the different
forms of political structure that emerge throughout this history. What does
this suggest?
HISTORICAL OVERVIEW OF JAPAN
The Japanese People
-
- It is still uncertain from where the people who settled in Japan originally
came, or when they arrived. Most scholars, however, now agree that they
were present in the archipelago from the distant past, continuing there
without interruption until modern times. Developments in the study of ancient
remains, bones, etc. have cast doubt on the earlier theory that the Japanese
are descended from an invading people who, arriving later than the 'aboriginal'
Ainu people, drove them out. It is now believed that the makers of the
pottery known as Jomon, known to have been in the islands from at least
as early as 5000 B.C., were the forebears of the present-day Japanese,
and in the course of time mingling with other races, developed over a long
period into the people known today.
- Japanese language and customs include elements from both northern and
southern cultures. From the viewpoint of usage and phraseology, it is apparent
that Japanese belongs to the Altaic system of language used by the northern
peoples of the Asian continent, but its vocabulary as such includes many
words of southern origin. Among customs and beliefs, we find rituals of
southern origin in connection with rice-cultivation, while the myth of
the founding of the nation by a god -- the ancestor of the race -- who
descends from the heavens to a mountain, is of northern origin. It is thus
generally believed that peoples both from north and south came to the islands
over a long period in prehistory, a mingling of different races gradually
producing the unique Japanese race.
- In recent years, discoveries of ancient remains in various areas throughout
the country seem to point to the existence of a pre-earthenware culture
in Japan before the Jomon culture, probably during the Paleolithic age.
The Iwajuku excavations in Gumma prefecture in 1949 unearthed stone implements,
unaccompanied by earthenware, from the Kanto loam layer, ascribed to the
latter diluvial age. Similar implements have been excavated at Chausuyama
in Suwa city, and at Moro in Tokyo's Itabashi ward.
- Study of Neolithic period remains reveals the Jomon culture -- from
somewhere around 5000 B.C. to 200 B.C. -- to have been a nomadic hunting
and gathering one, and the succeeding Yayoi culture -- approximately 200
B.C. to A.D. 200 -- which probably began with a new inflow of peoples from
the continent, to have been a settled, cultivation one. From around the
end of the third century A.D. arose the so-called Burial-Mound culture,
characterised by the building of huge earthen mausolea for its emperors;
it continued until the end of the sixth century.
- The period from the end of Yayoi through the Burial Mound age was Japan's
real formative period. Written records from the China of the day are useful
in providing information about this time, for example the description of
the state of Yamatai, and its queen Himiko, found in the "Account
of the People of Wa" within the Chinese "History of the Kingdom
of Wei". Here we can learn of conditions in Japan just before the
establishment of the Yamato court.
The Imperial System
-
- Japan's imperial system, originally based on the myth of the descent
from heaven to an earthly mountain of a deity -- supposed to be the ancestor
of the imperial line -- boasts an unbroken line of imperial succession
since the time of the early emperors.
- Over the long period involved. there were disputes in the Imperial
family as to the right of succession to the throne, as well as incidents
such as the assassination, exiling, confinement, or even suicide of emperors,
but despite this, the throne was always handed on to a member of the Imperial
family. Moreover, throughout the various vicissitudes undergone by various
emperors or by the Imperial family as a whole, the system continued to
be supported by a feeling of respect or trust towards the emperor among
the people. This remained unaffected by the establishment of warrior government,
which rendered the emperor's power merely nominal, and even by politically
unwise acts on the part of actual emperors. Movements to overthrow or discount
the imperial system ended in failure.
- Japanese scholars have accounted the unbroken continuation of the system,
longer than that of any other country, to the fact that no Japanese emperor
has been so tyrannical, unjust or cruel, nor so absolute and despotic as
the rulers of other countries. Another factor, however, of course is that
during the fifteen hundred years or so since the establishment of the imperial
line, only short periods of direct government by the emperors themselves
have been known. They exercised the greatest power over about two centuries,
during the Asuka period (593-708), which covered the time of the Taika
Reforms and their embodiment in the code known as the Ritsuryo, and on
through the time of the emperor Temmu and the empress Jito and the Nara
period until the beginning of the ninth century, in the early Heian period.
- For a thousand years or more following this, however, government was
either in the hands of regents or, later, in those of the successive shoguns,
etc. under the warrior-government system first established by Minamoto-no-Yoritomo.
All through this time, the activities of the emperors and of the imperial
court in Kyoto were restricted to matters of cultural rather than political
significance. Moreover the court was obliged to compromise with the demands
of various powerful families, and with the shogunate. Though a few emperors
during this time attempted to restore political power to their own hands,
their efforts either failed entirely or met with only temporary success.
With the Meiji Restoration, so-called direct government by the emperor
replaced the feudal system of warrior government which had continued for
so long. The emperor Meiji, who ruled from 1867 to 1912, did in fact play
an active part in discussions as to government policy with the leaders
who had been instrumental in bringing about the Restoration. The emperors
who followed him, however, were less active, and as the political power
of government leaders still imbued with old clan-government ideals increased,
and later, in the 1920s and 30s, power fell into the hands of the leaders
of the military forces, not only the emperor, but even the newly-established
political parties and the Diet gradually grew powerless once more. Most
Japanese up to this time continued to feel trust and respect towards the
emperor, and even after the war, the emperor remained on the throne as
a national symbol, in practice a position similar to that occupied by successive
emperors from the tenth century onwards.
- A further factor which has helped to preserve Japan's imperial system
may be seen in the location and nature of her territory. As an island nation
where contacts and disputes with other races were few, Japan experienced
no pressures threatening her system of government from the outside, nor
was the emperor needed as a military leader symbolising the unity of the
nation to other nations. Thus, for many reasons, the imperial line has
endured over a period spanning the ages.
Warrior Government
-
- Warrior or shogunate government (known in Japanese as bakufu,
after the Chinese title for the imperial guard) first officially began
when the warrior Minamoto-no-Yoritomo had himself invested with the official
title Seii-Taishogun (barbarian-quelling generalissimo) in the year
1192, seven years after he had assumed de facto control of the country.
(The title originated in 801, and had first been bestowed on a warrior
who had conquered northern Japan for the Yamato emperors. This warrior,
Sakanoue-no-Tamuramaro, however, made no bid for personal power).
- Certain families, known as buke or bumon, not just ordinary
warriors, claimed descent from one branch or another of the Imperial family.
In the latter part of the Heian period, there were increasing disturbances
of the peace in the provinces, as the court nobles and the aristocracy
became increasingly weak and incompetent, so that wealthy families, or
temples holding private estates, came to maintain their own armed guards
for self-protection and the maintenance of public peace and order. Those
who maintained and led large groups of samurai or armed retainers
were called toryo (pillars), and persons related by blood to the,
Imperial family, or nobles who settled in the provinces, became toryo
with the support of the local warriors on the basis of the standing of
their family or their noble lineage. (Thus the Heike or Taira family and
the Genji or Minamoto family, who later vied for control of the country,
were descended respectively from the emperors Kammu and Seiwa). Such provincial
leaders were at first of relatively low importance in comparison with the
imperial court and the court nobility, to which they were subordinated.
But by the latter part of the Heian period, they had assumed a central
role, with real authority backed by their military strength. In the civil
wars of Hogen and Heiji times, they played a pivotal political role like
that previously played by the great Fujiwara family.
- The aim of the Heike was to replace the Fujiwaras in controlling the
Imperial family rather than to form their own shogunate government. After
a struggle lasting for around 20 years, however, the Heike were defeated
and destroyed by the Genji, in the persons of Minamoto-no-Yoritomo, and
his brothers. Yoritomo, leaving the fighting to his younger brothers, himself
remained at his own base in Kamakura, and established various administrative
bodies which would later enable him to assume leadership as head of all
the warrior groups. Subsequently, he turned on his own younger brother
Yoshitsune, and on the pretext of supporting the imperial court against
Yoshitsune, successfully proposed to the cloistered emperor that officials
known as shugo or constables should be appointed in all provinces,
and others known as jito or stewards in all public and private estates,
as a means of carrying out a search for Yoshitsune if he attempted to take
refuge there. The shugo were then made responsible for policing
and control of all samurai within their areas, while the jito,
among other duties, became responsible for supervising the land and collecting
taxes, which were imposed in rice, according to the size of each area.
- In all these matters, Yoritomo asked formal permission of the emperor,
and carried out his plans in the emperor's name. Using previously existing
positions and systems -- jito, for example had originally been local
officials appointed by the private estates -- Yoritomo achieved his ends
by simply obtaining the right to appoint his own vassals to these positions
throughout the country. The shugo or provincial leaders, selected
from among the jito, were supposed to protect the interests of the
imperial court in peacetime, and to lead their vassals in battle in time
of war. But in all this, Yoritomo was consolidating his own authority to
police and supervise, and extending his power throughout the country, becoming
in essence its ruler. Subsequently, after destroying Fujiwara Yoshihira,
son of Fujiwara Hidehira who had given shelter to Yoshitsune, Yoritomo
-- resistance overcome throughout the land -- proceeded to Kyoto, where
in 1190 he had himself appointed a councillor of state and finally, in
1192, Seii-Taishogun.
- Thus shogunate government came into being to fill the gap left by the
weakness and incompetence of the court and the imperial regents. At first,
therefore, the shogunate and the imperial court were not in opposition.
Rivalry only arose with the Jokyu incident, after the third Minamoto shogun,
Sanetomo, was assassinated, and the Minamoto line came to an end in 1219.
The Hojo family -- relative of Yoritomo's wife, Masako -- acting as regents,
declared the 2-year-old Kujo Yoritsune, a distant relative of Yoritomo,
as shogun, and in practice retained the reins of power in their own hands.
This was the signal for the court, under the cloistered emperor Gotoba,
to attempt to regain political power, and in 1221, the court issued an
order for the subjugation of the regent Hojo Yoshitoki, Masako's younger
brother. The imperial forces, however, were quickly defeated, three cloistered
emperors were exiled, and a new emperor, Goshirakawa, was appointed. This
established the Kamakura shogunate's position as stronger than that of
the court, enabling it to interfere in matters of succession to the throne,
and to choose or change emperors in accordance with its own views.
- In 1318 again, when the emperor Godaigo ascended the throne, the incompetence
of Hojo Takatoki encouraged him to attempt a restoration of imperial power.
With the help of the warrior Ashikaga Takauji, he defeated Hojo and effected
what is known as the Kemmu Restoration. In less than three years, however,
the new government collapsed when Ashikaga Takauji turned against the emperor.
Godaigo fled, and established a kind of refugee court on Mount Yoshino.
Meanwhile Ashikaga Takauji appointed a new emperor, Komyo, and established
a new court. For over fifty years, thus, two courts, each with its own
emperor, remained in existence, the first, on Mt. Yoshino, known as the
Southern court, and the second as the Northern court. Ashikaga Takauji
had himself appointed shogun on behalf of his self-chosen emperor, bringing
into being the Muromachi shogunate. The latter had its headquarters at
Muromachi in Kyoto, in close proximity to the court, however, and with
the rival claims of the two courts continuing for over half a century before
they were finally merged, the relationship between the Northern court and
the shogunate at this time was one of mutual dependence. The Ashikaga shogunate,
moreover, never became very strong, and with the eighth shogun, Ashikaga
Yoshimasa, it virtually lost control of the country, giving rise to factionalism
which ended in the Onin War. With continual fighting throughout the land,
the shugo or provincial constables gradually developed into feudal
lords in their own right, known as daimyo or shugo-daimyo.
After only a brief period of peace, the country entered the hundred year
or so Age of Civil Wars, which continued until around the middle of the
sixteenth century, when efforts to reunify the country finally succeeded
under the leadership of Oda Nobunaga. Most of the warrior leaders who attempted
reunification at this time, including Oda Nobunaga, numbered among their
aims that of visi